Greywater reuse: decentralized treatment with forward osmosis and hydroponic systems

Mendoza, Esther
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To address the challenges of freshwater scarcity caused by climate change, population growth, and inadequate water management, a shift towards circular economy is essential. This is especially important in water-scarce areas reliant on tourism, a sector with substantial water consumption which is rapidly expanding. Hence, reducing freshwater use on a local scale, including tourism, through water reuse is a key strategy. Greywater (GW), which is domestic wastewater without toilet waste, is a promising source for reuse due to its lower contamination levels compared to the total fraction of domestic wastewater. However, it still contains harmful contaminants like organic micropollutants (OMP), which may pose risks to the environment and human health. Decentralized water treatment systems, such as membrane technologies and nature-based solutions (NBS), offer solutions for safe water reuse in water-scarce regions and/or in isolated areas. Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging technology that filters water through a membrane using an osmotic gradient as a driving force, achieving higher contaminant rejections than other membrane technologies, and with potentially lower energy requirements. The fertilizer-drawn forward osmosis (FDFO) approach avoids the need for draw solution recovery by using the diluted draw solutions with fertilizer salts for irrigation. Alternatively, NBS like hydroponic systems (soilless culture), have the capacity of growing food crops and have also showcased effectiveness for water treatment, while offering multiple co-benefits, hence emerging among the most sustainable options for the transition towards circular economy. This thesis evaluated the feasibility of FO and hydroponics as decentralized systems for GW treatment and reuse. The thesis was carried out through a multidisciplinary approach, which resulted in the publication of five scientific articles. Initially, article 1 explored water management practices in Mediterranean coastal hotels, revealing prevalent use of water-saving devices but limited water reuse. Subsequent research (articles 2, 3, and 4) focused on FO, particularly FDFO, highlighting its potential and challenges, such as fertilizer losses. Research also showed that fertilizer salts of magnesium and phosphate recovered from wastewater could be used in FO and hydroponics, achieving successful plant growth (lettuces) in nutrient-adjusted solutions. Further investigation focused on FO for GW treatment, achieving high rejection rates for most OMP, but noting decreased rejection over time. Article 5 evaluated the performance of hydroponic systems for GW treatment and crop production, showing promising results for lettuce growth with nutrient supplementation. However, some OMP remained in edible tissues, indicating the need for system optimization to ensure safety. Overall, this thesis contributes to the growing body of knowledge on decentralized water treatment and reuse, offering insights into the potential of FO and hydroponic systems for addressing water scarcity challenges and promoting circular water management ​
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